Poiana Cotofenesti ceremonial gold helmet  with bumps after Achemenide fashion

http://download.academic.ro/columna/polus/Coif_Cotofenesti.jpg

http://forums.totalwar.org/vb/showthread.php?122736-Preview-The-Getai&p=2053221708&viewfull=1

Contents:

Apotropaic Gold and Silver Helmets of the Daco-Getian Warriors

Three Silver Objects from Thrace: A Technical Examination

Tattooed Getai

Bubuieci Treasure

Dausdava or the City of the Wolves, Helis, Sboryanovo-Isperih, now Bulgaria 

Military Organization and Weaponry 

Dacian Shields

Dacian Falx 

Dacian Swords of Malaya Copan in Free Dacia

Dacian Sica

Getian Bow and Arrow

SPURS BELONGING TO THE DACIAN KINGDOM PERIOD 

Army Organization

North Thracian helmets followed Skythian-Dachean practice, with some very interesting gold and silver models being molded with multiple bumps on the top. These are thought to represent the hair-style of the wearer. The Aghighiol greave was found in conjunction with a similarly decorated silver-gilt helmet, roughly conical with rectangular cheek-pieces and a short neck-guard; it has eyes and eyebrows embossed and gilded above the wearer's eyes. An almost identical helmet comes from the Iron Gates area, and a gold helmet from Cotofenesti , embossed with curls to represent hair, is obviously also related. All are from Getai noble graves, but are considered to show heavy Scythian influence in their decoration. As with the greaves, they are obviously parade items, being made of such soft metal, but it is possible that less ornate items of the same general pattern may have been worn in action. 

http://badaew.narod.ru/trakian/Helmets.htm

POIANA COTOFENESTI HELMET , ROMANIA

Poiana Cotofenesti ceremonial gold helmet 

http://download.academic.ro/columna/polus/Coif_Cotofenesti.jpg

http://badaew.narod.ru/trakian/Helmets.htm (drawings)

http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=1442520 

http://art-historia.blogspot.com/2010/10/sergiu-decebal-si-coiful-de-aur.html 

Gold helmet  of a Getic prince at Cotofenesti, in Wallachia, 4th century BC (Berciu).  The bumps on the helmet are thought to represent the wearer's hairstyle. "Thracian Treasures...." 187; Gold helmet from Cotofenesti, alt. 25.5cm.   Item 199 from I Daci, with drawings from that book, Duncan Head, and Vladimir Dumitrescu & Alexandru Vulpe, Dacia Before Dromichaite

 In the small village of Poiana Cotofenesti, southern Romania, in the spring of year 1928, the very young son of a local peasant, a kid still in the elementary school, while helping his family work the field with a plow, he stopped when the blade run across what later proven to be a phenomenal archeological discovery: an ancient gold helmet. Quickly, first, the school, then, the authorities and finally the National Museum of Antiquities (founded 1834 !) were alerted and here is what the discovery really was:

Gold has an inferior defensive resistance (crash tested) compared to other metals known and used on a large scale by the Geto-Dacians, where the conclusion that this is more of a ceremonial parade piece rather than battle ready. It was an isolated piece, not part of a treasure or thesaurus, likely lost or hidden by its last owner and never retrieved.

Cotofenesti, detail

Only fragments of ceramic were found in the nearby .
The last image is another helmet, this time part of a treasure and it was made in silver, belonging to the exact same culture, exact same time found at Peretu, southern Romania.Another one and the only one outside Romania is to be found in exhibit at Detroit Institute of Arts. There is only a total of five known of these apotropaic Geto-Dacian ceremonial helmets so far, four of them displayed in Romania and discovered at Poiana Cotofenesti, Baiceni, Agighiol and Peretu.The last one at DIA was purchased from a collection in Vienna, where it previously fled the country under "arguable" conditions.

 http://prehistoire.e-monsite.com/album-cat-1-54609.html

 http://badaew.narod.ru/trakian/Helmets.htm

PERETU HELMET , ROMANIA

Peretu silver-gilt helmet, 4th century BC, alt. 26.5 cm, MINR Inv No 73 865, Item 177 from I Daci 

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_7S-0oWrx8aQ/RxzNF813xyI/AAAAAAAAADM/I-TFXt6FCQ0/s1600/peretu.jpg

AGIGHIOL "COTYS"TREASURE

http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=1442520

 
Text and photos at: http://www.vikingsword.com/vb/showthread.php?t=703

AGIGHIOL HELMET, ROMANIA  

Agighiol silver gilt helmet, 5th century BC, "alt. 8cm" , MNIR inv. Nos 11181  Item 150 from I Daci 

http://badaew.narod.ru/trakian/Helmets_files/Agighiol.jpg 

http://badaew.narod.ru/trakian/Helmets_files/Agighiol.jpg

 Muzeul Naţional de Istorie a României

 Coif de argint - aurit, ciocanire, Tezaur Agighiol
Î = 270 mm, greutate / Weight: 743 g

Datare / Dating: 1/2 sec. IV a. Chr.

Calota elipsoidală, cu deschidere dreptunghiulară pentru faţă. Pe obrăzare şi apărătoarea de ceafă călăreţi suprapuşi de palmete în cârlionţi şi spirale. Pe frunte doi ochi apotropaici. La baza calotei friză de arcade, bandă îngustă şi haşurată, friză de palmete. Degradări fizico-chimice; deformare mecanică. Produşi de coroziune ai argintului. Piesa a fost restaurată prin lipirea de fragmente cu răşină; consolidarea în interior s-a făcut prin dublare cu o calotă de răşină.(apud. www.cimec.ro)


Cele două obrăzare ale coifului sunt împodobite identic cu un călăreţ avansând către fată si atacând cu suliţa. Pe apărătoarea de ceafa se află alţi doi călăreţi identici, dar orientaţi în sensuri opuse, având drept centru de simetrie o rozetă şi secondând astfel fiecare pe cel de pe obrăzar. În faţa urechilor stilizate se află câte patru şuviţe de păr lucrate în maniera podoabei capilare a pulparelor, dar net diferită de felul de redare a părului pe pulparul de la Vraţa (Bulgaria).

Natura profană a călăreţilor de pe coif mi se pare întru totul evidentă. Transformarea imaginii umane în motiv decorativ repetitiv pledează tocmai în acest sens. Pe partea exterioară a pulparului drept sunt încă două reprezentări antropomorfe. Sus, un călăreţ cu arcul în mână, iar jos poate acelaşi principe, şezând pe tron, cu şoimul în mâna dreaptă şi ritonul în formă de corn în stânga. Ritonul pare ferecat în benzi de metal preţios. Relatând întâlnirea dintre Dromihete si Lisimah, Diodor din Sicilia precizează: „În cele din urmă, puse să le toarne macedonenilor vin în cupe de argint şi de aur, pe câtă vreme el şi tracii lui beau vinul în pahare de corn şi de lemn, aşa cum obişnuiesc geţii" (XXI, 12, 5).

Chiar dacă afirmaţia lui Diodor poate fi doar un topos cu valoare moralizatoare, şi nu numai o dovadă despre tezaurele getice de veselă din aur şi argint (în acest caz e bine că ştim de eventualitatea existenţei unui tezaur princiar la nord de Dunăre, format din vase de băut, aidoma celui de la Rogozen, dar ulterior acestuia cu poate câteva decenii). Iată deci ritonurile de corn getice atestate mult mai devreme decât momentul la care se referă Diodor, ele având a dăinui, alături de alte produse de valoare ale toreuticii geto-dacice aflate în tezaurele lui Decebal, până la cucerirea romană.

apud Mihai Gramatopol

 

AGIGHIOL GREAVE, ROMANIA

Agighiol getian grave (details) with tattooed face

  http://www.gebeleizis.org/tracic/6.htm 

Getian Greave from Mogilanska Mogila-Vratsa-Bulgaria

http://heritage-key.com/site/national-museum-history-bulgaria

http://www.kroraina.com/thracia/gk/

http://download.academic.ro/columna/polus/Coif_Agighiol.jpg

http://www.losttrails.com/pages/Hproject/ThracoGetae/ThracoGetae01-01.html

This 359 BC warrior dress was part of the burial gifts of an Odrysian Aristocrat, discovered in Golyamata Mogila. The Big Tumulus at Golyamata Mogila is part of the Sboryanovo Archaeological Reserve, and situated between the villages of Zlatinitsa and Malomirovo in the Yambol region.  

The finds are dated to the mid 4th century BC and consists of a bronze helmet of the Chalkidean type with unique decorations of coiled snake and an iron, scaled armour.

The burial also contained swords, spears and bronze arrow heads.

Horseman in scale armor, from  Letnitsa -Bulgaria

Letnitsa gilt sliver applique, first half of fourth century shows in details the scale armor of the Thracian warrior.

Horseman in scale armor, from a Letnitsa -Bulgaria silver-gilt plaque c. 400 - 350 BC

 http://ancient-treasure.info/thracian-treasures/letnitsa-silver-treasure.htmltedindex=3&ccid=rsBLFREk&simid=608004624895706725&thid=JN.xg%2Fl4KL8pVXuQ6vFbSNGvQ&mode=overlay&first=1

 The Letnitsa (now in  Bulgaria) treasure was an accidental discovery.

In 1963 workers from a farm in the village of Letnitsa decided to build a new sheep house. While digging, at 50–60 centimeters, they came across a bronze vessel turned upside down. It was full of little silver items, some of them decorated with gold. They shared the treasure. Later on the curator of the museum of the near town of Lovech collected the items with the help of the doctor of the village, who witnessed the unearthing.

Save the silver items, some of which were very small, typical for the horse trappings from the 4th century BC, there was a well-preserved rein. It consisted of two iron braces, which were used to hold the bridle to the halter, and a bit-chain.

The cycle of illustrations of historic scenes on a group of plaques is very interesting. On some plaques the protagonist is represented as a horseman fighting and defeating bears and wolves, on other he is throwing his spear, followed by his servant.

The Letnitsa treasure plaques throw some light on the mythology of the ancient Thracians and their believes, which allows us to take a look at the culture and conception of world of these distant predecessors.

The Letnitsa treasure is exhibited in the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia.

 http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=Gold+treasure+from++Letnitsa+-Bulgaria&view=detailv2&&id=073137EC75E1FF6494E3AD08417FF8E9C53FA3C2&selectedIndex=6&ccid=ZXaywFi0&simid=608042613880590129&thid=JN.ljjHazkljiLxRCzbMdUgyg&ajaxhist=0

n.

  CUCUTENI-BAICENI HELMET 

     

http://art-historia.blogspot.com/2010/10/sergiu-decebal-si-coiful-de-aur.html 

 Cucuteni Baiceni Getian gold helmet: 

 

Idol from Gumelnita culture with apotropaic eyes decorum

 

 

http://cercetati.blogspot.com/2011/06/muzeul-national-de-istorie-camera.html 

 

 

DETROIT INSTITUTE OF ART GETIAN HELMET

 

http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/armata_daca/coifuri_05.jpg

Portile de Fier Silver Helmet, now at the Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan, SUA

http://badaew.narod.ru/trakian/Helmets.htm
North Thracian-Getic  Silver Helmet, ca. 400 B.C.; ; height 24 cm (9 1/2 in.), Detroit Institute of the Arts

 

 

 

(Text from the DIA web site): The richly ornamented helmet was fashioned for a wealthy member of a northern Thracian tribe living near the Danube river in modern Romania or Bulgaria. It was hammered from one sheet of silver with a high dome to accommodate the top-knot of hair worn by many Thracians.

The main elements of the design are in low relief; the details were chased and engraved. On the brow piece fierce eyes with bushy eyebrows stare out. One cheek piece bears a horned animal, the other a huge bird of prey with a fish in its beak and a rabbit in its claws. The back and upper edges are embellished with linear designs of rosettes, vines, feathers and scallops. The interpretation of the imagery is uncertain, but the motifs may refer to traditional myths well known to contemporary Thracians and appropriate to the elaborate armor of a warrior

 

Coiful de la Institutul de artă din Detroit, ca si vasul-riton de la Metropolitan Museum, New York, au intrat în respectivele muzee americane din binecunoscuta colecţie vieneză Trau. 

 

http://aycu13.webshots.com/image/3292/2001655276105392307_rs.jpg

 http://www.allempires.net/topic15172&KW=thracian.html

http://www.dacii.ro/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=892

http://prehistoire.e-monsite.com/rubrique,getii-sec-iii-ii-a-chr,1101606.html

 

 

Text for Skythian images from The Skythians 700-300 BC by Dr E V Cernenko & Angus McBride, Osprey Men-at-Arms Series, London, 1986

 

 

 

 

Beaker with birds and animals, 4th century b.c.
Thraco-Geti style
Lower Danube region, Thrace
Silver
H. 7 3/8 in. (18.7 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1947 (47.100.88)

The ancient land of Thrace encompassed a large area now divided into Bulgaria, southern Romania, eastern Yugoslavia, northeastern Greece, and parts of European Turkey. The first inhabitants of Thrace came from the northern part of Europe and appeared at least as early as the second millennium B.C. Thracian tribes of the mid-first millennium B.C. adopted some of the decorative traditions and nomadic habits of their Scythian neighbors to the east, but they had closer cultural relations with European prehistoric peoples and preserved many of the traditions of the European Bronze Age. From the mid-first millennium, such objects as ceremonial helmets, armor, cups, and ornamental gear for horses—worked from silver and sometimes gilded—have been discovered in graves and in chance finds that must have been the buried hoards of Thracian princes and chiefs.

This silver beaker is a fine example of fourth-century B.C. Thracian workmanship. It probably was made in the region of present-day Romania or Bulgaria, as similar beakers have been found in a princely tomb at Agighiol, near the delta of the Danube in eastern Romania. The beaker is raised from a single piece of silver with stamped, chased, and repoussé decoration. A horned bird of prey holds a fish in its beak and clutches what seems to be a hare in its claws. The bird is flanked by one horned and two antlered animals, and, facing the large bird, a tiny bird of prey hovers over the horned animal. Almost opposite the large bird is a staglike creature with eight legs. His antlers extend into a border of tines ending in bird heads that circle the upper portion of the cup. Around both the rim and the base of the beaker runs a pattern of overlapping semicircles; below, the pattern is fringed with scrolling that suggests waves. On the bottom of the cup a winged, griffinlike monster chews an animal leg and grasps a small beast in its clawed feet.

Although certain contemporary Scythian and Iranian stylistic influences can be seen, the iconography of these scenes is clearly Thracian and probably refers to a native myth or legend. The monstrous bird of prey with land and water creatures in its grasp appears to symbolize dominance over land and water, while the eight-legged stag probably represents a fabulous capacity for speed. Scholars have suggested that its placement on the side of the cup opposite the bird of prey may indicate that the stag is always free from the bird's domination. Though a precise interpretation of the iconography remains uncertain, scholars also have suggested that these animals were symbols associated with a heroic ruler and served as protective spirits, avatars, and tribal totems.



Source: Beaker with birds and animals [Thraco-Geti style] (47.100.88) | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art 

 

 http://www.eliznik.org.uk/EastEurope/History/treasure&tombs.htm

 

 

 

Figure 20: Two views of a Thracian helmet, bronze, 4th century. after my own sketches of no. 247 in the British Museum Thracian Treasures exhibition of 1976

Thracian helmet from Moldavia, plate 6 from JGP Best, Thracian Peltasts and their Influence on Greek Warfare.  (Moldavian Museum of History and Regional Geography)

 Left: bronze Thracian  Helmet, plate 101 (page107) from Hoddinott, found in Kovachevitsa, east of the upper Nestos valley.  Height overall 39cm, helmet only 23.7cm. "The form follows the style of Thracian headgear, perhaps a legacy of the Otomani flame symbol."

• Dacian warfare

Dacian helmet design was influenced heavily from the East. The more wealthy soldiers often wore Phrygian style helmets.

 Reprezentarea unui razboinic geto-dac pe un sigiliu.

O incercare de traducere a textului de pe sigiliu o gasim la Branislav Stefanoski si AL.Dabija ,, Din arhivele Daciei,,

These were characterized by a foreward facing knobby projection at the top. Their allies, the Sarmatians, were fond of dome-shaped helmets formed from several strips of metal welded together. Presumably, this helmet could also have been worn by the Dacians. The helmets above are depicted on the the base of Trajan's Column.

GAVANI

Bronze attic helmet and silver applied harness ornaments, discovered in a princely tomb; the Geto-Dacian period; cca 350-300 BC. Braila Muzeum, Archeology

 The Holy Men

Getai did not go to war without music:

Thereupon those priests of the Goths (Getai) that are called the Holy Men suddenly opened the gates of Odessus and came forth to meet them. They bore harps and were clad in snowy robes, and chanted in suppliant strains to the gods of their fathers that they might be propitious and repel the Macedonians. When the Macedonians saw them coming with such confidence to meet them, they were astonished and, so to speak, the armed were terrified by the unarmed. Straightway they broke the line they had formed for battle and not only refrained from destroying the city, but even gave back those whom they had captured outside by right of war. Then they made a truce and returned to their own country.

 The Generals

Heavy cavalry

Light cavalry

Chosen Warriors

The Slingers

The Draco was one of the best known symbols in the Geto-Dacian era. The earliest evidence of the Draco in Dacia was found on a pottery piece from Prahova county in Romania, dating from the 4th century BC. The Draco had a wolf’s head and the body of a snake. The head was made from bronze and the body from linen and held on a rod. It probably made a whistling sound that resembled a wolf’s howl.

It was originally developed by the Steppe people such as the Sarmatians and Alans and was adopted by the Roman cavalry sometime after they conquered the Dacians.

http://forums.totalwar.org/vb/showthread.php?128038-RTR-VII-Preview-II-(The-Balkans-Part-One-and-The-Getai) 

hracian Horses

 

 

 

 

 

 http://farm1.static.flickr.com/80/234799395_f8faa402a0.jpg

  http://www.hindu.com/2006/09/05/images/2006090505301301.jpg

 

 

Thracian horses are usually described as being special in some way or other, contrary to what Snodgrass says in the introduction above.  In the texts below you can read how they were prized for their beauty, and also that they would help bring victory.  Horses were trained and bred for racing, a prerequisite for successful cavalry warfare.

Horse riding epitomized the Thracians. Euripides and Homer called the Thracians "a race of horsemen", and Thrace, the land of the Thracian horsemen (Hecabe p63 Penguin); horses were very important to Thracians, and seem to have been of good quality.

 

Studies of Thracian horses from fourth century tombs show that they were larger than steppe ponies and at least comparable to the breeds on the Greek mainland, which reached 1.34m or 13 hands. The biggest would have been between 1.36 and 1.44m, or 14 hands at the withers, similar to stallions of the Przewalski horse.

 

Horses were trained and bred for racing, a prerequisite for successful cavalry warfare. Xenophon’s On Horsemanship VIII rates Thracian horses to be as good as Persian and Greek horses, and says that the Odrysians habitually ran their horse races downhill.

 

Odysseus and Diomedes stealing the horses of Rhesus. Side A of the “Rhesos krater”Apulian red-figure krater, ca. 340 BC. Darius Painter. Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany

 

In the Iliad a Trojan spy reports that the Thracian king Rhesus has the finest and strongest horses he has ever seen, "whiter than snow and fleeter than any wind that blows." Nestor later agrees, saying he never yet saw or heard of such horses; surely some god must have brought them (Homer, Iliad, X). Theocritus (Idyl xiv. 48) says that the Megarians asked an oracle who were better then they. The extraordinary reply received was: "Better than all other land is the land of Pelasgian Argos, Thracian mares are the best, and the Lacedaemonian women."

 

In Vergil’s Aeneid (12.132), Aneas sought out Thracian horses. At his approach they toss their heads on high, and, proudly neighing, promise victory. Vergil describes three Thracian horses: One had white fetlocks and "a snowy star" on the forehead; another was a piebald, while a third was dappled with white. Horses in the Kazanluk paintings do not have any markings and are different shades of brown, except for a single white horse.

 

 

 

Detail of the delightfully animated Chariot horses on the dome of the Thracian or Getian king at Kazanlik
http://www.flickr.com/photos/[email protected]/2499069822

 

The horse trappings were well crafted and highly decorative, and horses wearing all the items discovered in Thracian tombs must have made a fine sight. Saddles were not generally used, but the Kazanlik paintings show some brightly colored and patterned Saddle-cloths.

 

http://alex.eled.duth.gr/Istoria/thrace_english/Thracee1_2.htm 

Trajan's Column, Rome: Dacian horse and rider 

 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/image?img=1991.08.1004&type=vase&redirect=true

 Mounted warrior at left

Photograph by Maria Daniels, courtesy of the Tampa Museum of Art, October 1991

Tampa 1986.41

Perseus Digital Library Image Copyright Policy

Left: Attic Black Figure Oinochoe from Vulci, Etruria, 510 B.C. Click on the written link at left to see more pictures of this vase at the Perseus site, or click on the picture for a closer view.  Early Thracian heavy cavalry probably looked like this, with the addition of Thracian boots.  The rider is armed with two javelins and wears a Thracian cloak.

Thracian kings and their bodyguard fought as javelin-armed heavy cavalry, with breastplates, helmets, and greaves.  They would charge in wedge formation.  The equipment of northern Thracian cavalry varied markedly from their southern cousins.   There were very few heavy cavalry in Thracian armies.

Xenophon Anabasis 7.4.19 (Loeb)

[7.4.19] Meanwhile, Seuthes came to their aid with seven horsemen of his front line and his Thracian trumpeter. And from the instant he learned of the trouble, through all the time that he was hurrying to the rescue, every moment his horn was kept sounding; the result was, that this also helped to inspire fear in the enemy. When he did arrive, he clasped their hands and said that he had supposed he should find many of them slai

 Mihok L. (Technical University, Košice, Slovakia)

Kotigoroshko V.G. (Uzhgorod National University, Ukraine)

Metallografy of Iron Objects Found on Dacian Settlement Malaya Kopan

Dacian hill-fort Malaya Kopan. In present from many archaeologic sites of the Upper Tisza region the most intensive archaeologic research was performed at Dacian settlement found by the village Malaya Kopan, Vinogradovo county.

See location on Google map at:

http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&ll=48.149138,23.113861&spn=0.157595,0.298691&sll=37.0625,-95.677068&sspn=23.875,57.630033&vpsrc=6&t=h&z=11 

http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.170779,23.090258&spn=0.021866,0.055189&t=h&z=14&vpsrc=6&lci=com.panoramio.all 

 During 31 years of research of 2,1 h area tens of units of inhabitation and economic character were excavated, but, importantly, many production units allowing to reconstruct economic life of the settlement.

Among them the most important were smithies, glass and jewellery production shops. The finds documented existence of many different crafts in Malaya Kopan settlement on the beginning of the 1^st millennium A.D. (Котигорошко, 1989; Kotigoroshko, 1995, p.78-80). Numerous different kinds of ceramics, objects from iron and non-ferrous metals, glass and stone (hand-mills) show rich sortiment of local shops production.

Visual determination of the objects can serve as a base for their selection into the groups and sub-groups concerning their functions. Analysis of forms and construction features of the objects, determination of their genetic roots can allow to speak about production level in Malaya Kopan, the centre of Dacian culture in the Upper Tisza region.

The finds of the objects need the second, very important information related to technological methods of their production. Glass objects were analysed and evaluated in Leningrad Institute of Physics (Kotigoroshko, 1995, p.174-175). Metallic, mostly iron objects were analysed by archaeometallurgy group working at the Technical University in Košice (Mihok, Kotigoroshko, Hollý, Pribulová, Cengel, 1995, p.65-88; Mihok, Fečková, Kotigorosko, 2007, p.75-100).

During recent ten years growing importance was laid on analysis of weapons because of very rich collection of them in Malaya Kopan finds. Among them very important was sword type “Machain”, found in excavation XХVI in 2002 and four two-edged swords found in excavations on the periphery of the settlement, in sites “Srednij Grunok” and “Tschellenica” (Fig.1). In the first site eight crematory burial graves were found. The site was partly destroyed by previous agricultural works.

In 1936 spear-head, iron cover of shield and ring mail were found on Srednij Grunok site. Expedition of Uzhgorod National University in 2002 – 2003 excavated there seven graves, in which iron covers of shields (graves 2, 3-4), bended two-edged swords (graves 2, 6) and spear-heads (grave 2) were found. Next, the fragment of sword (central part) was found on the periphery of the site. Weapons and ceramics allowed to date the burials to the end of the 1^st and beginning of the 2^nd centuries A.D.

In 2007 new excavation started in site Tschellenica, 200 m north-west from central part of the settlement. Here was the place, where seven earthen walls guarded the Malaya Kopan settlement from the side of “Chust gate”, through which foreign tribes entered south of the Upper Tisza region and the Carpathian basin as a whole.

In course of the site research six fire burial graves were discovered and rich material was found. Basically, the material contained iron objects - clasp, belt buckle, knives, curbs. Special group of finds contained sword three times bended, heads of rods and darts. Stratigraphy of the site showed the necropolis was destroyed. Chronologically, the graves were dated to the first half of the 1^st century B.C.

Sword no.1  – Tschellenica. Metallographic analysis of the sword no.1 is in Fig.5. The sample was taken by cross-section cut. On the metallographic surface prior to etching thin and long bands of smithy inclusions were observed. Etching revealed next distribution of structures. On the one end of the metallographic surface ferritic-pearlitic structure of mildly carburized iron was found, photo 1. Lower down from the upper end it was easy to recognize that by the one side of the metallographic surface ferritic-pearlitic structures of carburized iron were found. Carbon content decreased to the other side, where only ferritic structures of non-carburized iron was found, photographs 2, 3, 4. Near the other end of the metallographic surface carburization of iron by the one side of the metallographic surface was more intensive, photo 5, at the very end of the metallographic surface only pearlitic structure of deep carburized iron was found, photo 6. The edge of the sword was probably formed in this place.

The sword was produced from non-carburized iron semi-products. After finishing forming of the shape the sword was carburized from one side, but more intensively on the edge. From analysis follows the sword was one-edged, its quality was good.

Fig.5. Metallographic analysis of sword no.1.

Method of iron objects analysis. Five iron objects were selected for metallographic analysis, three swords from site Srednij Grunok, one sword and one rod-head from site Tschellenica. Photographs of analysed objects are included in Fig.2 to 6, results of metallographic analysis. All five analysed objects contained suitable amount of solid metal, ready for sample taking. The objects were sampled by cross-section cuts enabling to study distribution of iron metal structures.

Discussion of results. Metallographic analysis of four swords from Malaya Kopan sites enables to describe and compare the blacksmiths technique used for production of the swords. Moreover, the results of the research can be compared with similar ones following from analysis of sets of contemporary iron objects found on the teritory of Slovakia.

Two swords were found in graves no.78 and 108 of the Zemplin cemetery, dated to the same period (Mihok, Miroššayová, Veselovská, 1993; Budinský-Krička, Lamiová, 1990). The swords were not analysed by the metallography method. Only one sword suitable for comparison purposes is Roman sword from Varín (Mihok, Pieta, 2004). The other sets of Roman and LaTéne iron objects did not contain swords but other types of iron weapons and mostly economic objects (Mihok, Olexa, 1999; Mihok, Pribulová, Pieta, Olexa, 2005; Mihok, Pribulová, Pieta, 2000; Mihok, Pieta, Mosný, 2006).

All four analysed swords from Malaya Kopan sites were produced by different blacksmiths methods. One of the swords from Srednij Grunok site was made from iron semi-product carburized up to 0,25% C. No additional carburization of the edge(s) was made. The sword was single-edged, its quality was not exceptional. The second sword was made by smithy welding of three iron semi-products with different pre-prepared properties. Both edges of the sword were prepared on carburized iron material. The sword was double-edged, its quality was extraordinary. The third sword was prepared by very different way. It was made of deep carburized homogeneous iron. After finishing the final shape the sword was re-heated, quenched and tempered. The production method was sophisticated, the quality of this double-edged sword was very high.

The sword from Tschellenica site was made from non-carburized iron semiproducts, next the sword was carburized from one side of the blade, the most intensive carburization was on the edge. The aim of the one-side carburization of the blade is not clear. The one-edged sword was of good quality.

The sword from Varín, north-west Slovakia, dated to the 2^nd century A.D., was constructed by welding of a few iron semi-products. The most intensive carburized semi-products were placed on both sides of the sword, where the edges were made. The sword was double-edged. The handle and part adjoining to the handle were made of low-carburized iron. After finishing the final shape the sword was re-heated, lower part of the blade was quenched and tempered. The quality of the sword, dated to Púchov culture, was very high.

Concerning the rod-head, its construction from mildly carburized iron material with following surface carburization was very good solution, utility value of the rod-head was high. LaTéne spear-head from Horná Lehota was produced from non-carburized iron material and only very little surface carburization was observed. The prong of the harrow, dated to the LaTéne period, found in Liptovská Mara archaeological site, was produced from deep carburized iron material.

The author had in disposition five analysis of iron swords dated to the same period. The results of metallographic analysis were unlike showing different methods of iron swords production. It was easy to understand when comparing the Roman sword from Varín with the ones from Malaya Kopan sites. But why so big differences among Malaya Kopan swords? Status of the person who ordered the sword? Change of production technologies? Or simply the purposes for which the swords were produced? Continuing research probably can answer these questions............

Conclusions. The paper presents results of metallographic analysis of four iron swords and one rod-head, found in archaeological excavations of Malaya Kopan sites. Three swords were found in Srednij Grunok site, one sword and rod-head in Tschellenica site. The results are as follows:

1. Each from analysed swords was produced by different blacksmiths method. The sword no.KS from Srednij Grunok was made from mildly carburised iron, no next carburisation of edge was found. The sword no.2 from Srednij Grunok was made by welding of a few iron semi-products, next both edges were deep carburised. The sword no.6 from Srednij Grunok was made from carburised iron, next the sword was quenched and tempered.

2. The sword no.1 from Tschellenica was carburised on one side of the blade and the most intensively on the edge.

3. It was not clear why the swords found in one complex around Malaya Kopan settlement were produced by different methods. Probably only analysis of more finds of swords from Malaya Kopan can solve the problem. Analysis of Púchov culture sword from Varín, Slovakia, used for comparison purposes, showed also very different method of production, unlike the swords from Malaya Kopan sites.

4. The rod-head was produced from mildly carburized iron, next the surface layers were hardened by carburization. The method of production was very satisfactory.

Mihok L. (Technical University, Košice, Slovakia),
Kotygoroshko V.G. (Uzhgorod National University, Ukraine)
METALLOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF DACIAN AND LATÉNE IRON
OBJECTS FOUND IN MALAYA KOPAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL
COMPLEX

with drawing and photos

 In 2007 - 2008 archaeological expedition of
the Uzhgorod National University made excavations in the site Tschellenica.
The site is situated on the top of the hill 200 m north-west from the Malaya
Kopan Dacian settlement, Vinogradovo district, Transcarpathian Ukraine. In
course of excavations on the square more than 2000 m2 twelve cremation
graves were discovered. Rich material was found in the graves. Basically, the
material consisted of adornments and objects persistent to clothes-fibulae,
buckles and clasps, bracelets, little chains. Special group of finds consisted of
weapons (swords, fighting sicas, spearheads, darts, fighting axe, etc.). Big
amount of chronoindicators enabled to relate the graves with Dacian
necropolis of the first half of the Ist century B.C. and to the first years of the
Ist millennium A.D.
In 2007 one sword was excavated and in 2008 ten swords followed. It
formed very broad collection of attacking weapons used by inhabitants of the
Malaya Kopan complex. Next, the swords were classified and submitted for
metallographic analysis.

The Thracians also wore tattoos. "To be tattooed is a sign of birth; to bear no such marks is for the baser sort." (Herodotus V, 6) "It was in special favour with the women, and the more nobly born they were, the richer and brighter coloured were the designs they used. Agathyrsi painted both their faces and their limbs with indelible designs (distinctive tribal marks), while the nobles also died their hair blue." The stripes and other designs on the woman's face of the Agighiol greave (found near Vratsa, dated around 380 BC) may represent tattoos. Levi says, "The strange ornaments, the parallel stripes on the woman's head, represent tattooing. Thracian witches who could enchant the moon out of the sky, and the tattooed faces of Thracian women had been proverbial in Athens in the 5^th century"(8) The Scythian had similar customs. A frozen Scythian king, dug out of the Siberian permafrost, was covered in spirals and animal tattoos. The Getai, being under heavy Scythian influence, probably followed this practice. (Chris Webber)

M.E. Durham Some Tribal Origins, Laws and Customs of the Balkans. London: Allen & Unwin, 1928. See especially Section III, pp.101-143: "Tattooing and the Symbols Tattooed." This is a mine of information on Balkan tattooing customs, and includes one or two minor references on the Thracians which appear not to be included in your website. The section noted here also has many figure diagrams of the style of tattoo still worn by some women in rural areas - and the designs follow very closely on those preserved on Greek pottery for Thracian women.  Another section of the book describes and illustrates traditional Albanian hairstyles. Interestingly, one of the styles appears completely shaved at the front - and could perhaps preserve something of the appearance of the Thracian Abantes hairstyle noted by Plutarch. 

 Tattoos

The Thracians also wore tattoos. "To be tattooed is a sign of birth; to bear no such marks is for the baser sort." (Herodotus V, 6) "It was in special favour with the women, and the more nobly born they were, the richer and brighter coloured were the designs they used. Agathyrsi painted both their faces and their limbs with indelible designs (distinctive tribal marks), while the nobles also died their hair blue." The stripes and other designs on the woman's face of the Agighiol greave (found near Vratsa, dated around 380 BC) may represent tattoos. Levi says, "The strange ornaments, the parallel stripes on the woman's head, represent tattooing. Thracian witches who could enchant the moon out of the sky, and the tattooed faces of Thracian women had been proverbial in Athens in the 5^th century"(8) The Scythian had similar customs. A frozen Scythian king, dug out of the Siberian permafrost, was covered in spirals and animal tattoos. The Getai, being under heavy Scythian influence, probably followed this practice. (Chris Webber)

 Picture of the greave at: http://www.losttrails.com/media/ThracoGetae/romania003-19tn.jpg

Gold Wreath from Golyamata Mogila

The Sboryanovo archaeological reserve is located near the town of Isperih, NE Bulgaria. The reservation covers one of the greatest concentrations of archaeological sites in the country from Prehistoric, Thracian, Roman and Early Christian periods. One of the most sensational discoveries of the Thracian archaeology - the Sveshtari tomb, a Unesco World Heritage Site - is located here. Sboryanovo reserve now is one of the biggest and best studied Thracian religious and political center dated to the 1st millenium BC.

Sboryanovo was founded at a strategic cross road between Europe and Asia, it became the capital of the Thracian Getae (or Getes) tribes in the 4th to 3rd centuries BC.

The complex of sanctuaries, the Hellenistic town and the hypothetical kings residence were surrounded in a radius of about 2000 m. by five tumular cemeteries, which in total contain over 150 mounds. The center could be identified with Dausdava, or the"City of the wolves" on the map of the Roman geographer Ptolemaios.

The Thracian - Getian Tomb of Sveshtari (Свещарската гробница) is located 2.5 km southwest of the village of Sveshtari, on the Sboryanovo Archaeological Reservine, in the northeast of Bulgaria. Discovered in 1982 below the Ginina Mogila mound, this 3rd century BC Thracian tomb reflects the fundamental structural principles of Thracian cult buildings.

The tomb's architectural decor is considered to be unique, with polychrome half-human, half-plant caryatids and painted murals. The ten female figures carved in high relief on the walls of the central chamber and the decorations of the lunette in its vault are the only examples of this type found so far in the Thracian lands. It features a scene of deification of the deceased ruler, and a massive decorative stone door (naiskos) hid the burial bed from the eyes of the mortals.

A second humbler bed was designed for the rulers wife, who followed the deceased in his afterlife, while his favorite horses were laid in the lateral chamber and in front of the entrance to the antechamber.

The Sveshtari Tomb is a remarkable reminder of the culture of the Getae, a Thracian tribe who were in contact with the Hellenistic and Hyperborean worlds, according to ancient geographers.

Archaeoastronomical analysis shows that that the axis of the Sveshtari tomb was directed to the first sun ray on December 22nd in 4th c. BC and the astronomic orientation of the other tombs were determined by the sun as well. The tumuli clusters were constructed as mirror images of part of the brightest stars in the constellations Canis Major, Canis Minor, Orion, Taurus, while the location of those from the Western cemetery coincides with the double mirror image of Saggitarius - a mirror reflection of the celestial order, following the Orphism beliefs. 

The Sboryanovo Archaeological Reserve contains amongst others the Unesco World Heritage Site 'Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari', the Demir Baba Teke mausoleum,  the Thracian town of Chelis and the Golyamata Mogila burial mounds.

Dacian troop types and organization

Infantry and Cavalry

The Dacian tribes, were part of the greater Thracian family of peoples. They established a highly militarized society and, during the periods when the tribes were united under one king (82 BC-44 BC, 86-106) posed a major threat to the Roman provinces of Lower Danube. Dacia was conquered (except for the Free Dacians) and transformed into a Roman province in 106 after a long, hard war.

The most important weapon of the Dacian arsenal was the falx^{[citation needed]}. This dreaded weapon, similar to a large sickle came in two variants: a shorter, one-handed falx called a sica^[6], and a longer two-handed version. The shorter falx was called sica (sickle) in the Dacian language. The two-handed falx was a polearm. It consisted of a three-feet long wooden shaft with a long curved iron blade of nearly-equal length attached to the end. The blade was sharpened only on the inside, and was reputed to be devastatingly effective. However, it left its user vulnerable because, being a two-handed weapon, the warrior could not also make use of a shield. Alternatively, it might used as a hook, pulling away shields and cutting at vulnerable limbs.

 
Using the falx, the Dacian warriors were able to counter the power of the compact, massed Roman formations. During the time of the Roman conquest of Dacia (101 - 102, 105 - 106), legionaries had reinforcing iron straps applied to their helmets. The Romans also introduced the use of leg and arm protectors (greaves and manica^{[citation needed]}) as further protection against the falxes.

A typical falx.

Sica,a small version of the falx

The Dacians were adepts^{[citation needed]} of surprise attacks and skilful, tactical withdrawals using the fortification system. During the wars with the Romans, fought by their last king Decebal (87-106 ), the Dacians almost crushed the Roman garrisons South of the Danube in a surprise^{[citation needed]} attack launched over the frozen river ( winter of 101-102 ). Only the intervention of Emperor Trajan with the main army saved the Romans from a major defeat. But, by 106 the Dacians were surrounded^{[citation needed]} in their capital Sarmizegetusa.The city was taken after the Romans discovered and destroyed^{[citation needed]} the capital's water supply line.Dacians decorated their bodies with tattoos like the Illyrians^[7] and the Thracians^[8].The Pannonians north of the Drava had accepted Roman rule out of fear of the Dacians^[9].

As a result, the king committed^{[citation needed]} suicide and Dacia became a Roman province until 271.

Marcus Annaeus Lucanus^[10] 39 - 65 wrote of Dacian hordes;

Have poured her captains, and the troops who guard the northern frontier from the Dacian hordes

Dacians that could afford armor wore customised Phrygian type helmets with solid crests(intricately decorated), domed helmets and Sarmatian helmets.^[11].They fought with spears,javelins,falxes, one sided battle axes and used "Draco" Carnyxe's as standards.Most used only shields as a form of defense.Cavalry would be armed with a spear, a long bronze La Tene sword and an oval shield.

Most^{[citation needed]} of the infantry would wield a falx and perhaps a sica and would wear no armor at all even shunning shields.

Mercenaries

Dacian mercenaries were uncommon in contrast to the Thracians and the Illyrians but they could be found in the service of the Greek Diadochi^[12] and of the Romans^[13].

Nobility

A 2nd century chieftain would wear a bronze Phrygian type helmet,a corselet of iron scale armor,an oval wooden shield with motifs and wield a sword.^[14]

This section requires expansion.

Navy

There was no^{[citation needed]} Dacian navy except perhaps boats to cross the Danube that don't qualify as navy

 Dacian Weaponry captured at the end of the first war with the Romans

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:057_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_LVII_(Ausschnitt_02).jpg

 Ovid, in his "The Sorrowful" speaks about the Geto-Dacians in the following words:
* You can see them on horseback, riding in midroad.
* Among them you won't find anyone who does not carry a quiver, bow and arrows whose spikes are yellow with the viper's poison.
* Their voices are hoarse, their faces wild and they look like the most genuine embodiment of Mars.
* They have never had their hair or beard cut.
* Their right hand is always ready to thrust the knife that they have fastened to their hip

http://cheiron.humanities.mcmaster.ca/~trajan/images/hi/6.16.h.jpg 

The most important weapon of the Dacian arsenal was the falx^{[citation needed]}. This dreaded weapon, similar to a large sickle came in two variants: a shorter, one-handed falx called a sica^[6], and a longer two-handed version. The shorter falx was called sica (sickle) in the Dacian language.

The English word dagger might come from Vulgar Latin daca, a Dacian knife, and it also may be related with the medieval Romanian word daga, a kind of knife with three blades, used only for assassination.

 http://www.theancientweb.com/explore/content.aspx?content_id=25

 Mihok L. (Technical University, Košice, Slovakia),
Kotygoroshko V.G. (Uzhgorod National University, Ukraine)
METALLOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF DACIAN AND LATÉNE IRON
OBJECTS FOUND IN MALAYA KOPAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL
COMPLEX

http://www.nbuv.gov.ua/portal/Soc_Gum/karpatyka/2009_38/mihok.pdf 

Results of metallographic analysis. Sample 1. Dacian fighting sica.
The object 1, Dacian sica, is in Fig.1. The method of sample taking is in
Fig.2. As can be seen from the Figure, the sample was taken from one edge
and body of the sica blade. The sketch of analysed metallographic surface is
in Fig.3. The numbers in the sketch show spots where different structures
were observed.
Fig.1. Object 1. Dacian fighting sica.
Fig.2. Object 1. Dacian fighting sica. Method of sample taking.
Fig.3. Object 1. Dacian fighting sica. Analysed metallographic surface.
Bands of smithy inclusions and scales (Fig.4) were observed on the
metallographic surface of the sample prior to etching. Etching by nital
revealed only coarse grained ferritic structure of non-carburised iron in the
body of the fighting sica (Fig.5, spot 1). Down to the edge not very deep
(about 0,2% C) carburisation, documented by ferritic-pearlitic structure,
appeared only on one side of the metallographic surface. It is shown in Fig.6,
taken from the spot 2. Fig.7 shows situation near the edge (spot 3). The
situation is very similar to the one in the spot 2. The band of not very deep
carburised iron stretches through the centre down to the very edge.
Carburised iron is surrounded by non-carburised iron with coarse grained
ferritic structure. Very sharp boundary between carburised part and noncarburised
ones evidences of intentional welding of carburised and noncarburised
iron semi-products in form of plates or bars, when the carburised
one was positioned on and near the edge.
Fig.4. Bands of smithy inclusions and scales. Sample 1.
Fig.5. Ferritic structure of non-carburised iron. Spot 1. Sample 1.
Fig.6. Carburisation on one side of the metallographic surface. Spot 2.
Sample 1.
Fig.7. Distribution of structures near the edge. Spot 3. Sample 1.
The fighting sica no.1 had satisfactory quality. Because of noncarburised
iron in the body it gained sufficient toughness. The edge was
carburised, not too much, but enough for sufficient hardness of this part. No
special construction features were found by the analysis.
Sample 2. Dacian fighting sica. The object 2, Dacian fighting sica, is in
Fig.8, the method of sample taking is shown in Fig.9. Also in this case the
sample covered the edge and part of the body of the sica. The sketch of
metallographic surface is in Fig.10.
Fig.8. Object 2. Dacian fighting sica.
Fig.9. Object 2. Dacian fighting sica. Method of sample taking.
Fig.10. Object 2. Dacian fighting sica. Analysed metallographic surface.
A lot of smithy inclusions, mostly in form of bands, were found on the
metallographic surface in non-etched state. A band of big smithy inclusions is
depicted in Fig.11.
Fig.11. Band of smithy inclusions in sample 2.
Etching revealed ferritic-pearlitic structure of carburised iron with
about 0,3% C in the spot 1 in the body of the sword (Fig.12). Down to the
edge, the spot 2, ferritic-pearlitic structure of carburised iron with lower
carbon content about 0,25% was found (Fig.13). In parts near the edge
carbon content in iron decreased to about 0,1% (Fig.14, spot 3). It is the
opposite situation as should be. Low carbon content on the edge and higher
carbon content in the body? Probably not the edge, but the back of the
fighting sica was sampled. There is no sharp edge around the spot 3 on the
sketch of metallographic surface (Fig.10). Probably the body is around the
spot 3 and the spot 1 is in position towards the edge.
Fig.12. Ferritic-pearlitic structure of carburised iron. Spot 1. Sample 2.
Fig.13. Ferritic-pearlitic structure of carburised iron. Spot 2. Sample 2.
Fig.14. Low carburised iron near the edge. Spot 3. Sample 2.
When taking into account the situation described above, the fighting
sica was prepared with proper method, with low carbon tough iron in the
body and carburised iron on the edge.
Sample 3. Dacian fighting sica. The object 3, Dacian fighting sica, is in
Fig.15, the method of sample taking is in Fig.16. The sample, that was taken,
covers the edge and a part of the sica body. Fig.17 presents the sketch of the
metallographic surface prepared on the sample.
Fig.15. Object 3. Dacian fighting sica.
Fig. 16. Object 3. Dacian fighting sica. Method of sample taking.
Fig.17. Object 3. Dacian fighting sica. Analysed metallographic
surface.
A lot of smithy inclusions and particles of scales were observed on the
metallographic surface in non-etched state. Etching visualised following
distribution of structures. In the body of the fighting sica, spot 1, fine grained
ferritic-pearlitic structure of not very deep carburised iron was found
(Fig.18). Down to the edge, spot 2, feritic-pearlitic structure with carbon
content similar to spot 1 was found only by one side of the surface, the other
iron material in this spot had lower carbon content (Fig.19). On the very
edge, spot 3, fine grained ferritic-pearlitic structure of iron with very low
carbon content (about 0,1%) was observed (Fig.20).
Fig.18. Ferritic-pearlitic structure of low carburised iron. Spot 1. Sample 3.
Fig.19. Ferritic-pearlitic structure of low carburised iron. Spot 2. Sample 3.
Fig.20. Very low carburised iron on the very edge. Spot 3. Sample 3.
It is probably the same situation as in analysis of the sample 2, back
and body of the sword were sampled, not the edge. From this point of view
analysis of spot 1 in the body proves growing content of carbon towards the
edge that was in opposite position. Taking this fact into account, the way of
the sword manufacturing was proper.
Sample 4. Fighting axe. The object 4, fighting axe, is in Fig.21, the
method of sample taking is in Fig.22. As can be seen from the Fig.22, the
sample covered the edge and the body of the axe. The sketch of
metallographic surface prepared on the sample is in Fig.23.
Fig.21. Object 4. Fighting axe.
Fig.22. Object 4. Fighting axe. Method of sample taking.
Fig.23. Object 4. Fighting axe. Analysed metallographic surface.
Bands and clusters of big particles of smithy inclusions were observed
on the metallographic surface prior to etching (Fig.24). Etching revealed two
kinds of structures in spot 1 in the body of the axe. One of them was coarse
grained ferritic structure of non-carburised iron, the second one was fine
grained ferritic-pearlitic structure of mildly carburised iron. Both structures
are depicted in Fig. 25. Boundary between both structures is formed by the
band of smithy inclusions. All other parts of the metallographic surface are
characteristic by structures of carburised iron. In spot 2 down to the edge two
different carburised structures were observed, one was deep carburised, the
second one mild carburised, both were fine grained as a result of intensive
hammering (Fig.26). Sharp boundary between the two structures is very
interesting. Special situation is depicted in Fig.27, spot 3. Here also two
bands of differently carburised iron are visible, but, moreover, the structure
by one side of the metallographic surface (one surface of the axe) has ferritic
character of non-carburised iron. Probably it resulted from secondary
decarburisation in a flame. Structure on the very edge, spot 4, is in Fig.28.
The structure represents deep carburised and quenched iron.
Fig.24. Smithy inclusions in sample 4.
Fig.25. Distribution of structures in spot 1. Sample 4.
Fig.26. Two structures of carburised iron in spot 2. Sample 4.
Fig.27. Distribution of structures in spot 3. Sample 4.
Fig.28. Structure of deep carburised and quenched iron on the edge. Spot 4.
Sample 4.
From results of metallographic analysis followed the body of the
fighting axe was made from non-carburised tough iron. Broad part of the axe
near the edge was carburised, or, probably, prepared by welding of carburised
iron semi-products, as documented by sharp boundaries between the
structures. The edge itself was deep carburised and quenched. By described
way of manufacturing local smiths prepared high quality weapon - the
fighting axe.
Sample 5. Laténe sword. The object 5, Laténe sword, is in Fig.29,
the method of sample taking is in Fig.30. The sample covered the edge and
part of the body of the sword. The sketch of metallographic surface of the
sample taken from the sword, is presented in Fig.31.

 Base of Trajan's Column, with Dacian weaponry

 http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/ARTH/Images/109images/Roman/imperial_sculpture/column_trajan/column_base.jpg

http://www.legionsix.org/Equipment/Real%20Gear/real_gear_3.htm 

 Pair or iron shield facings, probably late Macedonian or Dacian, ca. 3rd-1st century BC. Each has a diameter of 35 cm and a thickness of 3-5 mm.

 Iron Geto-Dacian shield facing, depicting a bull in the tondo. 

Geto-Dacian iron shield facing depicting griffin (or gryphon). All probably

3rd-1st century BC.

 O  pereche de scuturi din fier forjat furate de la Sarmisegetuza

 http://www.mediasinfo.ro/artefacte-furate-de-la-sarmizegetusa-regia-recuperate/2011/05/12/

Dacian falx

  http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/armata_daca/falx_dacica.htm (Romanian only but with very nice photos of Falxes)

The Dacian falx came in two sizes: one-handed and two-handed. The shorter variant was called sica^[1] (sickle) in the Dacian language (Valerius Maximus, III,2.12).

In Latin texts the weapon was described as an ensis falcatus (whence falcata) by Ovid in Metamorphose or falx supina by Juvenal in Satiriae.

The two-handed falx was a pole-arm. It consisted of a three-feet long wooden shaft with a long curved iron blade of nearly-equal length attached to the end. The blade was sharpened only on the inside, and was reputed to be devastatingly effective. However, it left its user vulnerable because, being a two-handed weapon, the warrior could not also make use of a shield. It may be imagined that the length of the two-handed falx allowed it to be wielded with great force, the point piercing helmets and the blade splitting shields - it was said to be capable of splitting a shield in two at a single blow. Alternatively, it might used as a hook, pulling away shields and cutting at vulnerable limbs.

Dacian Weaponry including falx exhibited in Cluj National History Museum

^[2]

The time of the conquest of Dacia by Trajan is the only known instance of the Roman army adapting personal equipment while on campaign; it seems likely that this was a response to this deadly weapon. Roman legionaries had reinforcing iron straps applied to their helmets - it is clear that these are late modifications because they are roughly applied across existing embossed decoration. Roman armour of the time left limbs unprotected; Trajan introduced the use of leg and arm protectors (greaves and manica).

The Roman monument commemorating the Battle of Adamclisi clearly shows Dacian warriors wielding a two-handed falx.

Trajan's column is a monument to the emperor’s conquest of Dacia. The massive base is covered with reliefs of trophies of Dacian weapons and includes several illustrations of the two-handed falx. The column itself has a helical frieze that tells the story of the Dacian wars. On the frieze, almost all the Dacians that are armed, have shields and therefore cannot be using a two-handed falx. Unfortunately, the exact weapon of those few shown without shields cannot be determined with certainty.

The frieze of Trajan's column also shows Dacians using a smaller, sword sized falx.

Thracian falx

The Thracians also made use of the falx. They also used the rhomphaia, a weapon very similar to the two handed falx but much less drastically curved.

Development

The two handed falx is clearly related to the Thracian rhomphaia. It is a derivative of both the sword and the spear, having evolved from a spear to a polearm before becoming more drastically curved to facilitate a superior cutting action. This drastic curve rendered the falx a purely offensive weapon to be used against a broken or routing force. Typically, an enemy would be broken by a sustained hail of missile fire from javelin, dart, bow, sling, and stone throwing troops before being chased down and cut to pieces by the falx wielders.

The ancestor of the two handed falx may have been a farming implement used as an improvised weapon, in a manner analogous to the bill-gisarme. However, the scythe did not appear until the 12th and 13th centuries. The single-handed falx might have been inspired by the sickle, although agricultural sickles of the time were typically quite small—no more than 30 cm or so in length.

At the time of the Dacian wars, producing a long, sharp blade was technically challenging. As such, it might be that the two-handed falx was a high-status weapon and used only by the best warriors.

Gallery

Tropaeum Traiani depicting a falx/romphaia in battle	Tropaeum Traiani depicting a falx/romphaia in battle	Tropaeum Traiani depicting a falx/romphaia in battle	Tropaeum Traiani depicting a falx/romphaia in battle
Tropaeum Traiani depicting a falx/romphaia in battle	Falx illustrated on the pedestal of Trajan's Column.

Image:[^[3]]| Dacian Falx blades discovered at Sarmisegetuza

See also

• Dacian warfare
• Rhomphaia
• Siege hook
• Sickle-sword

References

External links

• http://www.scribd.com/doc/33876270/Borangic-C-Incursiune-in-Arsenalul-Armelor-Curbe-Tracice-Falx-Dacica-Sebus-I-2009
• Demonstration of a reconstructed falx in use.
• The curved sword of the Dacians.
• Falx as a tool.
• Dacian wielding single handed falx, Trajan's column.
• Dacians wielding single handed falxes, Trajan's column.
• Images of historical re-enactor with falx. Refer to images in row F
• Image
http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/

First, both Cornelius Fronto who use the name "Dacorum Falcibus" for dacian swords in his Principia Historiae and Publius Papinius Statius in hiw work called "Achilleis" where he said the "Falx" is representative weapon of the Getae, relate this kind of sword just with Dacians. There is no mention anywhere in ancient world who relate the sword with Bastarnae

As well, archeological findings of Falx are just in the middle of the Dacia (today Transylvania/Romania), in the interior of Carpathian Mountains arch, with an exception of one find in south of Danube (close to the river) in Moesia (teritory inhabited as well by Dacians (Getae more exactly). It was never find any curved swords (Falx or Sica) in any sites related with Bastarnae (which btw are mostly in today Ukraine or even Rep. of Moldova).

Falx was in my opinion just a development of a family of curved knives and short curved swords, and even the shape of some Sica (or even shorter knives) resemble in generaly the much bigger Falx. Falx apeared more likely after the first encounters with Romans (middle of I century BC) and their fighting style and equipment (big shields and armour) and was developed from an already know (similar or close) desing to by-pass that shield and armour .

This are some images of curved knives, Sica (who contrary to some believes doesnt have an exact standard of all exmplaires) and Falxes

First, some short battle knives of Dacians (there is a shield too)



Then Sica (from the teritories of today Romania, Bulgaria and even Serbia, former inhabited by Dacians, Getae (Dacians was a branch of Getae) or Moesii, (a Thraco-Dacian tribe)

http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/armat ... a_pl_9.jpg

http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/armat ... a_pl_2.jpg

http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/armat ... a_pl_8.jpg

http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/armat ... _pl_10.jpg

http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/armat ... _pl_13.jpg

http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro/armat ... a_pl_9.jpg

This are from Traian Column



This are signs and incisions make on many Sica blades



And this are the images of Falx blades finded until now (again, just in inner Carpathian Dacia and in or close to capital Sarmisegetuza). On one of the swords (second from top in the left) is an incision sign as ones find on some Sica's

http://img138.imageshack.us/img138/9814/sabiifalx.jpg



On that roman coin a female representing Dacia can be observed as well handling a two handed Falx


And this is the article of that historian about Falxes, with dimensions and descriptions (it have a smaller part in english too)

http://www.scribd.com/doc/33876270/Bora ... bus-I-2009

The Rhomphaia Lives!

by Duncan Head

 SPURS BELONGING TO THE DACIAN KINGDOM PERIOD

PINTENI DACICI DIN EPOCA REGATULUI
Cristian Dima

Sargetia XIII, p.175

http://muzeu.geomatic.ro/publicatii.htm

Fig. I. Răspândirea pintenilor în Dacia: 1. Ardeu (jud. Hunedoara) 2. Bâtca Doamnei
(jud. Neamţ) 3. Brad (com. Negrii, jud. Bacău) 4. Braşov 5. Cândeşti (jud. Vrancea)
6. Călan (jud. Hunedoara) 7. Căpâlna (jud. Alba) 8. Costeşti (jud. Hunedoara) 9. Cugir
(jud. Alba) 10. Jigodin (jud. Harghita) 11. Lunca Ciurei (jud. Iaşi) 12. Măgura
Moigradului (jud. Zalău) 13. Medişorul Mare (com. Simioneşti, jud, Harghita)
14. Mereşti (jud. Harghita) 15. Ocniţa (jud. Vâlcea) 16. Piatra Craivii (jud. Alba)
17. Pietroasele - Gruiu Dării (jud. Buzău) 18. Poiana (jud. Galaţi) 19. Popeşti (jud.
Argeş) 20.Dubova (jud. Mehedinţi) 21. Racoş (jud. Braşov) 22. Râşnov (jud. Braşov)
23. Răcătău (jud. Bacău) 24. Sighişoara 25. Tilişca (jud. Sibiu).

 Pl. I. 1-2. Răcătău (apud Glodariu); 3. Răcătău (apud Căpitanu); 4. Poiana (apud
Vulpe); 5. Pietroasele – Gruiu Dării (apud Sârbu); 6. Poiana (apud Vulpe); 7. Răcătău
(apud Căpitanu); 8. Poiana (apud Vulpe);9. Brad (apud Ursachi);

 Pl. II. 1. Piatra Craivii (apud I. Berciu); 2. Căpâlna; 3. Pietroasele - Gruiu Dării (apud
Sârbu); 4. Costeşti – Cetăţuie (apud Glodariu); 5. Porolisum (apud Macrea); 6. Braşov
(apud Roşca); 7. Măgura Moigradului (apud Matei, Pop); 8. Mereşti (apud V. Crisan);
9. Costeşti-Cetăţuie (apud Glodariu); 10. Dubova (apud Spânu); 11. Pietroasele – Gruiu
Dării(apud Sârbu); 12. Costeşti-Cetăţuie (apud Glodariu);

Abstract
The spurs are harness pieces that belong to the equipment of a knight. Made
from metal, they are attached to the heels of the bearer, and play an important role in
transmitting some of the commands to the horse, though prick fixed to their ends. The
spurs from Pre-Roman Dacia were discovered in a funerary context, but at the same
time they have been found in civil and fortified settlements (see the map in Pl. II). They
have been dated to a very wide period of time, from the middle of the second century
B.C. to the end of the first century A.D. An aspect that the archaeological researchers
observed is that the spurs from Dacia have many analogies with Celtic spurs.
In this study I have attempted to discuss aspects of terminology as well as
attempting to create a typological classification of the spurs from Pre-Roman Dacia
because these tasks have never been carried out in our scientific literature. We must
observe the fact that in combination with Tracian harness pieces, the use of horses in an
attach campaign was very efficient, the animal having been trained for this purpose
probably responded instantaneously to the commands given by the rider.
Table of Illustrations
Fig. I – Spurs spreading map;
Fig. II – Terminological figure;
Pl. I. 1-2. Răcătău (according to Glodariu); 3. Răcătău (according to Căpitanu);
4. Poiana (according to Vulpe); 5. Pietroasele – Gruiu Dării (according to
Sârbu); 6. Poiana (according to Vulpe); 7. Răcătău (according to Căpitanu);
8. Poiana (according to Vulpe);9. Brad (according to Ursachi);
Pl. II. 1. Piatra Craivii (according to I. Berciu); 2. Căpâlna; 3. Pietroasele - Gruiu Dării
(according to Sârbu); 4. Costeşti – Cetăţuie (according to Glodariu);
5. Porolisum (according to Macrea); 6. Braşov (according to Roşca); 7. Măgura
Moigradului (according to Matei, Pop); 8. Mereşti (according to V. Crisan);
9. Costeşti-Cetăţuie (according to Glodariu); 10. Dubova (according to Spânu);
11. Pietroasele – Gruiu Dării(according to Sârbu); 12. Costeşti-Cetăţuie
(according to Glodariu);
Pl. III. 1-2. Pietroasele – Gruiu Dării (according to Sârbu); 3. Mereşti (according to
V. Crişan); 4. Jigodin (according to V. Crişan); 5. Piatra Craivii (Craiva,
according to I.Berciu); 6. Căpâlna (according to Rustoiu); 7. Costeşti-Cetăţuie
(according to Daicoviciu); 8. Ocniţa (according to Berciu); 9. Poiana (according
to Silvia Teodor).

 Jordanes - The Origin and Deeds of the Goths

 They were the first race of men to     43
string the bow with cords, as Lucan, who is more of a
historian than a poet, affirms:

      "They string Armenian bows with Getic cords." 

Horace (Horatius Flaccus), Odes 3, 6 13-16 writing in the time of Augustus, 

spoke of the Dacians’ skill in archery:

Our city (Rome), torn by faction's battles,

Was almost destroyed by Dacian and Ethiopians,

These with their dreadful navy, those

For archer-prowess rather praised.

The distinguished first century AD politician Silius Italicus says of Hannibal in his Punica that he “shot from his bow arrows soaked with viper venom […] which he constantly [took] out from his perfidious quiver, as a Dacian does from the war-torn lands of the Getae.”

Trajan;s Column in Rome, XVI 24 4b 61,62  This magnificent panel is another fragment of  “The battle in the Thunderstorm”, in which the Dacian army formed in majority by Comati (common people) and some Tarabostes- the noblemen or pileati (the wearer of caps) had among them a detachment of archers.  One part of the army is engaged in the combat , another part is waiting in the coniferous woods with their standards: a Labrarum and a Draco. On top right Trajan is playing with a captured Dacian bow.

The Dacian God Zalmoxis was the God of the open sky. When the sky was clouded the Dacians used to shoot arrows at it and considered it a bad omen.

24 32, 5b, 77,78,79 This could be Dinogetia - a Geto-Dacian settlement conquered by the Romans and transformed into a border fortress. The fort was defended by auxiliaries. The Dacian army tried to liberate it. Interesting is the cross on the fortress gate. Dacians are using battering ram and bow and arrows during the attack.

Scythians shooting with bows, Kertch antique Panticapeum Ukraine 4th century BCE. Musée du Louvre
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scythians_shooting_with_bows_Kertch_antique_Panticapeum_Ukrainia_4th_century_BCE.jpg